A Path To Technology

Free Web Hosting Service:

2009-07-11T15:52:00.002+05:30

A free web hosting service is a web hosting service that is free, usually advertisement-supported. Free web hosts will usually provide a subdomain (yoursite.example.com) or a directory (www.example.com/yourname). In contrast, paid web hosts will usually provide a second-level domain along with the hosting (www.yourname.com). Many free hosts do allow use of separately-purchased domains. Rarely, a free host may also operate as a domain name registrar.

Monetizing Free Web Hosting:
The majority of the hosting companies use free hosting to introduce their services, and as an entry point to their more expensive offerings. Generally they recoup their costs in one of a few ways:

* Advertising - Selling online advertising on the customer sites is generally considered a fair trade - the reasoning is that high traffic sites are more expensive to host, but the additional traffic allows for additional ad impressions therefore covering the cost. For the web master, it can be a good trade if the advertising is of good quality and non-competitive. This is one of the main reasons that businesses do not use free hosting for their website. The majority of free hosting companies use this method.

* Referrals - Using a simple form of viral marketing, these providers rely on the users to spread the offer. The ratio of free to paid accounts is known, and by having each free user refer a number of friends, the hosting provider is able to get enough paid accounts to cover the cost.

* Resell Hosting - This is where someone starts up a hosting company, attracts lots of visitors, then sells the hosting company to someone else once it can no longer support itself. Once sold, this individual uses the money to start up multiple hosting ventures and sells each in turn.

Some hosting companies are using hybrid approaches that mix these tactics.

Methods of giving out web hosting:
A few methods of giving out Free Webhosting to people by Webhosts.

Instant Activation:
Due to the risks of illegal, inappropriate, and abusive website, hosts with instant activation usually give very little storage space and monthly bandwidth. Other restrictions will likely also be in effect. The webhosts usually either require the users' web pages to display their banner ads, textlink ads, or popups; or else the users' files to be uploaded through a web-based file manager that display ads to the user uploading files.

Hosts with instant activation are often abused, such as link spamming.

Post for Hosting:
Some free hosts require posting in a forum. Forum-based free hosting requires users to either reach a certain amount of posts before getting a free hosting account, or be an active contributor in the forum. Forum-based free hosting often work on a system of points where posts give points to a user and can be used as credits toward getting a hosting account or more resources. Typically, the forum where users have to post contains advertising as the hosts way of making a profit.

Forum applications:
This method is popular, as the hosts can decide which applications to deny and allow. This is common when a popular forum has free hosting as an add-on service, rather than the other way around.

Web Hosting Services:

2009-07-11T15:44:00.002+05:30

A web hosting service is a type of Internet hosting service that allows individuals and organizations to provide their own website accessible via the World Wide Web. Web hosts are companies that provide space on a server they own or lease for use by their clients as well as providing Internet connectivity, typically in a data center. Web hosts can also provide data center space and connectivity to the Internet for servers they do not own to be located in their data center, called colocation.
Service Scope:
The scope of hosting services varies widely. The most basic is web page and small-scale file hosting, where files can be uploaded via File Transfer Protocol (FTP) or a Web interface. The files are usually delivered to the Web "as is" or with little processing. Many Internet service providers (ISPs) offer this service free to their subscribers. People can also obtain Web page hosting from other, alternative service providers. Personal web site hosting is typically free, advertisement-sponsored, or cheap. Business web site hosting often has a higher expense.

Single page hosting is generally sufficient only for personal web pages. A complex site calls for a more comprehensive package that provides database support and application development platforms (e.g. PHP, Java, Ruby on Rails, ColdFusion, and ASP.NET). These facilities allow the customers to write or install scripts for applications like forums and content management. For e-commerce, SSL is also highly recommended.

The host may also provide an interface or control panel for managing the Web server and installing scripts as well as other services like e-mail. Some hosts specialize in certain software or services (e.g. e-commerce). They are commonly used by larger companies to outsource network infrastructure to a hosting company.

Hosting Reliability and Uptime:
Hosting uptime refers to the percentage of time the host is accessible via the internet. Many providers state that they aim for at least 99.9% uptime (roughly equivalent to 45 minutes of downtime a month, or less), but there may be server restarts and planned (or unplanned) maintenance in any hosting environment, which may or may not be considered part of the official uptime promise.

Many providers tie uptime and accessibility into their own service level agreement (SLA). SLAs sometimes include refunds or reduced costs if performance goals are not met.

I/O Processors from INTEL:

2009-06-01T21:45:00.001+05:30

Many storage, networking, and embedded applications require fast I/O throughput for optimal performance. Intel® I/O processors allow servers, workstations and storage subsystems to transfer data faster, reduce communication bottlenecks, and improve overall system performance by offloading I/O processing functions from the host CPU.The table below provides a quick overview of the Intel I/O processor family. with Intel XScale® microarchitecture, builds on more than a decade of leadership in I/O processor technology. Offloads I/O processing functions, such as I/O interrupt processing and parity calculations, from the CPU. This allows the CPU to streamline application processing and to use other system resources, such as the system bus and memory, more effectively.

Intel's Six-Core CPU's:

2009-06-01T21:44:00.000+05:30

While most of us are still stuck with dual-core microchips (if that), Intel is prepping to launch a six-core processor in the second half of 2008. While the company currently offers a few four-core, or quad-core, models of its chips, most currently-sold machines still come with the more affordable dual-core CPUs installed.

The six-core chip is code-named Dunnington and will be built using the same 45nm process that Intel is using for its just-released Penryn-class chips. Another key feature is the chip's large level of level 3 (or L3) cache, 16MB, which is one of the memory buffers between the processor and RAM that are used to speed the overall performance of the chip. Most current Intel chips don't use any L3 cache, instead using only L2 cache: L3 has historically been limited to server-class computer chips, though AMD's Phenom chip has 2MB of L3 onboard. (Bottom line for those who don't understand any of this stuff: This chip ought to be blazing fast, at least on paper.)

The bigger question now becomes what Joe Average might actually do with six cores of processing power available to him. Numerous performance benchmarks have shown little real-world advantage in moving from two cores to four, even in high-end applications. Users who spend most of their time browsing the web and replying to email will find even less of a performance boost. That said, other computer components tend to get faster and more capable alongside new CPUs, so a Dunnington-based computer ought to feel very fast at booting, loading applications, and running complex processes like spell-checking a large document. Running an antivirus scan in the background which bogs down most computers should be no problem on a six-core CPU, too.

Expect Dunnington to arrive first for desktop PCs later this year. Intel hasn't said whether laptops are part of the plan for the technology, but given quad-core's limited introduction on notebook computers, I'd expect this to remain hard to find in a portable format for some time. More details as they emerge.

Intel® Itanium® Processor 9000 Sequence:

2009-02-14T07:42:00.004+05:30

Itanium®-based servers deliver the scalable performance, reliability, and headroom for your most compute-intensive workloads, including direct replacement for RISC and mainframe platforms. Because Itanium processors are available in commercial off-the-shelf hardware from a rich ecosystem of system and solution providers, they can quickly meet mission-critical needs.

Itanium-based servers are incredibly scalable, allowing configuration in systems of as many as 512 processors and a full petabyte (1024TB) of RAM. Together with full support for both 32-bit and 64-bit applications, that capacity provides unmatched flexibility in tailoring systems to your enterprise needs.

Intel® Xeon® Processor 3000 Sequence:

2009-02-14T07:42:00.002+05:30

The Intel® Xeon® processor 3000 sequence-based platforms unleash the computing power of Intel Xeon processors. The new 45 nm Quad and Dual-Core processors feature enhanced Intel® Core™ microarchitecture that provides your business with exceptional performance and power efficiency at a very affordable cost.

These servers are ideal for small business owners looking for ways to grow business, manage operation more effectively and efficiently, and protect and secure one of their most important assets - information.

Intel® Xeon® Processor 5000 Sequence:

2009-02-14T07:41:00.002+05:30

The breakthrough performance, energy efficiency, and reliability of Intel® Xeon® processor-based server systems make them the ideal choice for all of your data demanding or standard enterprise infrastructure applications.
Intel® processor-based servers enable businesses worldwide to do more and spend less—with outstanding price/performance and broad 64-bit choice across OEMs, operating systems, and applications. Supported by a single stable mainstream 2P server platform supporting a range of CPU options for IT flexibility, investment protection and easy migration.
Reliable, efficient, proven performance. Why would you depend on anything else? Intel® Xeon® processor-based servers deliver it all. Put Intel® server technology to work in your data center.

Intel Core 2 Duo Knocks Down AMD Athlon 64:

2009-02-14T07:38:00.001+05:30

Intel has regained the performance crown from AMD, after its launch of Core 2 Duo line of processors which are based on Intel’s new Core micro architecture. The processors are expected to ship by 27th July 2006. The performance Core 2 Duo is found to be superior than the AMD’s current line of processors.

Intel’s Core 2 Extreme X6800 didn’t lose a single benchmark in our comparison; not a single one. In many cases, the $183 Core 2 Duo E6300 actually outperformed Intel’s previous champ: the Pentium Extreme Edition 965. In one day, Intel has made its entire Pentium D lineup of processors obsolete. Intel’s Core 2 processors offer the sort of next-generation micro-architecture performance leap that we honestly haven’t seen from Intel since the introduction of the P6.

Compared to AMD’s Athlon 64 X2 the situation gets a lot more competitive, but AMD still doesn’t stand a chance. The Core 2 Extreme X6800, Core 2 Duo E6700 and E6600 were pretty consistently in the top 3 or 4 spots in each benchmark, with the E6600 offering better performance than AMD’s FX-62 flagship in the vast majority of benchmarks. Another way of looking at it is that Intel’s Core 2 Duo E6600 is effectively a $316 FX-62, which doesn’t sound bad at all.

We’re still waiting to get our hands on the E6400 as it may end up being the best bang for your buck, but even the slower E6300 is quite competitive with AMD’s X2 4200+ and X2 3800+. If AMD drops the price on those two parts even more than we’re expecting, then it may be able to hold on to the lower end of the performance mainstream market as the E6300 is not nearly as fast as the E6600.

For industry experts, Core 2 Duo beating the Athlon 64 processor family is no surprise: On the one hand, Core 2 Duo is a brand-new state-of-the-art processor, whereas the Athlon 64 X2 has been around for a while. On the other hand, Intel must come out with a superior product to finally beat AMD after two years of Athlon 64 headwinds.

Core 2 is an eighth-generation x86 architecture microprocessor to be produced by Intel based on an all-new CPU design called the Intel Core Microarchitecture, which will replace the NetBurst architecture that has powered Intel processors since 2000. Core 2 also will mark the retirement of Intel’s Pentium brand name that has been used from 1993 and the reunion of Intel’s notebook and desktop product lines since Pentium M was released apart from Pentium 4 in 2003.

Unlike NetBurst-based processors, such as the Pentium 4 and Pentium D, Core 2 will not stress designs based on extremely high clock speeds but rather improvements on other CPU features, including cache size and number of cores. Intel claims that the power consumption of these processors is to be extremely low compared to the Pentiums before.

Intel Core 2 processors will feature EM64T, Virtualization Technology, and Execute Disable Bit. The release will also introduce LaGrande Technology, SSE4, Enhanced SpeedStep Technology, and Active Management Technology (iAMT2).

Intel® Core™ Duo Processors:

2009-01-07T15:36:00.003+05:30

The Intel® Core™ Duo processor breaks new ground. Its dual-core technology rewrites the rules of computing, delivering optimized power efficient computing and breakthrough dual-core performance with amazingly low power consumption. Intel Core Duo processor is available in Intel's premium laptop platform, Intel® Centrino® processor technology. It can also be found in select Intel® Core™ 2 processor with Viiv™ technology-based systems.

Intel® Core™ 2 Duo Mobile Processor:

2009-01-07T15:34:00.001+05:30

When you power your notebook with an Intel® Core™2 Duo mobile processor, you'll get the performance you need for today's mobile multitasking. Built on the breakthrough 45nm halfnium-based technology, the Intel® Core™ 2 Duo mobile processor gives you plenty of power to run many demanding applications simultaneously, whether at home, in the office, or on on-the-go.

Intel® Core 2 Duo E6750 Preview:

2008-12-05T20:51:00.001+05:30

It hasn't been a full year since we saw Intel launch their Core 2 Duo processors, but we will soon be seeing a line-up refresh. This is one product that really needs no introduction, but seeing as this is a refresh, refreshing everyones minds seems appropriate. Intel launched the Core 2 Duo to much fanfare last July. Months prior to this, enthusiasts were drooling over leaks of performance reports, which fortunately, turned out to be right on the money.

The entire Conroe line-up is built on a 65nm process, with the mainstream products offering 4MB of L2 cache. Improved over the previous Pentium 4/Pentium D line-up was better power efficiency resulting in a lower TDP and better overall temperatures. This is appreciated, as two cores under the same IHS can potentially create an unwanted room heater.

All but the lowest end Core 2 Duos take advantage of a 1066FSB. This is where this refreshed line-up comes into play, as it ushers in 1333FSB computing. This noticeable speed bump is all done while retaining the same TDP.

All Conroe 1333FSB processors are identified by by a 50 at the end of the product name, hence E6750, which is effectively taking over the spot of the E6700. Nothing has changed except for the FSB and speeds, except the ratio of course, which had to be altered in order to compliment the upgraded frequency.

One thing that should be cleared up is that most overclocking enthusiasts have already accomplished the same speeds we are seeing today, with most being exceeded. In fact, there is nothing stopping anyone from popping in an E6600 and overclocking using a 333FSB and 8 multiplier. That would effectively give you the exact same speed as the E6750 we are taking a look at today.

You might be wondering where the benefit is, with this official speed bump. Primarily it will benefit those non-overclockers most. There is no comparison to equal processor speed at 1066FSB and 1333FSB. That added FSB frequency should make a much more noticeable performance difference than the CPU frequency boost itself.

This boost also helps usher in the DDR3-era, since these new processors will be able to utilize a 1:1 ratio with DDR3-1333 modules, a common DDR3 standard.

Aside from the obvious speed benefit with the new processors, there is another aspect that most are going to enjoy. The price. According to reports, the processor we are taking a look at today will retail for an average of ~$200 at launch. One popular e-tailer recently leaked their prices, which backed up these claims.

So here we have an E6750 at 2.66GHz with a 1333FSB... for $200? This is probably -the- reason why excitement should be in the air. Compare that to the current E6700 price, which hovers around the $300 mark. We will touch a lot more on pricing and other specifics in our conclusion.

Intel® Virtualization Technology:

2008-12-05T20:50:00.002+05:30

Helping to transform IT environments, hardware-assisted Intel® Virtualization Technology (Intel® VT) provides greater flexibility and maximum system utilization by consolidating multiple environments into a single server, workstation, or PC. With fewer systems required for the same tasks, Intel VT delivers:
• Simplified resource management increasing IT efficiency.
• Greater systems reliability and availability reducing corporate risk and real-time losses from downtime.
• Lower hardware acquisition costs with increased utilization of the machines you already have.

Intel® Hyper-Threading Technology:

2008-12-05T20:48:00.001+05:30

Intel® Hyper-Threading Technology (Intel® HT Technology) is available on laptop, desktop, server, and workstation systems. Look for systems with the HT Technology logo which your system vendor has verified utilize HT Technology.
HT Technology requires a computer system with:

A processor that supports HT Technology

HT Technology enabled chipset

HT Technology enabled system BIOS

HT Technology enabled/optimized operating system

Performance will vary depending on the specific hardware and software you use. See your system manufacturer for details on specific system configurations and performance.

Intel Introducing 16 new Processors:

2008-10-30T23:44:00.002+05:30

Intel introducing 16 new processors all based on the chipmaker's 45 nanometer (nm) process technology. We've been hearing a lot about 45 nm lately and, admittedly, it's kind of hard to get excited about semiconductor fabrication - especially when there's all manner of shiny new gizmos vying for your attention. First, it marks Intel's considerable lead over rival AMD. While AMD is expected to move the 45 nm sometime in the second half of 2008, Intel began mass-producing these chips in November 2007. In a general sense, 45 nm fans the flames of Moore's law, allowing Intel to double the number of transistors in the same silicon space. According to the chipmaker, it also allows the company squeeze more performance out of smaller transistors and increases the overall energy efficiency of a given processor. How small are we talking about? Well, there are 1 billion nanometers (nm) in one meter. And while the original Bell Labs transistor could be held in your hand, you can actually fit hundreds of 45nm transistors on the surface of a single red blood cell. So, yeah, small.One of the other noteworthy aspects about Monday's announcement is the fact that more than a quarter of these new processors are aimed at the mobile arena. Anyone who's been following Intel knows the company is keen on expanding more into this space, both with its continued WiMax push and in the form of its newfound love of the mobile internet device (MID). And with five new 45nm dual core mobile processors slated for release this month that are (in some cases) up to 25 percent smaller, you can not only expect new notebooks equipped with these processors, but also new form factors.In fact, Intel says it's also planning on using these new teeny tiny transistors and manufacturing advances to spur on this MID category of small form-factor, low-powered devices later in the year.

AMD's Phenom Triple-Core Processor:

2008-10-30T23:35:00.001+05:30

AMD’s triple-core processors have been on the horizon for months now and, after all the speculation and derision, they are finally here. The launch included three Phenom X3 processors: the 8750, 8650, and 8450, all of which will come in at under $200. AMD is, as expected, positioning these processors between their dual-core and quad-core offerings and is targeting cost-conscious consumers, people who will appreciate the performance boost but would rather save a few dollars than go with a quad-core.
The three 65nm models will arrive at 2.1, 2.3, and 2.4GHz frequencies, respectively priced at $145, $165, and a hefty $195 for the 8750. These models have a TDP of 95W and 1.5MB total L2 cache per processors as well as 2MB shared cache. Also included is HT 3.0, a 1.8GHz memory controller, and Dual Dynamic Power Management. And because this is a 50 series processor we know it is a B3 revision model. They are AM2+ (940 pin) compatible so consumers won’t necessarily need new hardware to run an X3.
Having the basic information in front of you, it’s not immediately clear whether AMD is fulfilling a need that no one has, offering an interesting new option to consumers, or just making the best out of their situation (by releasing “broken” quad-cores as X3s). What we do know though is that outside of enthusiasts circles there won’t be the clamoring and complaints about the third core, rather it’ll probably be seen as nothing more (or less) than something between two other options.
AMD is also touting a platform approach–not exactly admitting that they can’t compete with Intel on a processor-by-processor basis, but rather than their entire package is better than the competition’s. Specifically, this platform is “Cartwheel”, AMD’s current take on a main-stream computer with integrated graphics. By using the 780G chipset AMD could actually produce a better system (dollar-for-dollar) than Intel, so long as you subscribe to their platform approach, something that may actually make sense considering that most sub-$200 processors are found in pre-built computers.

Information About Computer:

2008-10-30T23:32:00.001+05:30

computers are used in many places in which most of them use laptops.A laptop computer, or simply laptop (also notebook computer, notebook and notepad) is a small mobile computer, which usually weighs 2-18 pounds (around 1 to 8 kilograms), depending on size, materials, and other factors.Laptops usually run on a single main battery or from an external AC/DC adapter which can charge the battery while also supplying power to the computer itself.

Many computers also have a 3 volt cell to run the clock and other processes in the event of a power failure.As personal computers, laptops are capable of the same tasks as a desktop computer, although they are typically less powerful for the same price. They contain components that are similar to their desktop counterparts and perform the same functions, but are miniaturizedand optimized for mobile use and efficient power consumption. Laptops usually have liquid crystal displays and most of them use different memory modules for their random access memory (RAM), for instance, SO-DIMMin lieu of the larger DIMMs.
In addition to a built-in keyboard, they may utilize a touchpad (also known as a trackpad) or a pointing stick for input, though an external keyboard or mouse can usually be attached.CategoriesThin-and-lightsLaptops usually weighing in between 4 and 6 lb (1.8–2.7 kg) with a screen size of between 12 and 14 inches (30–35 cm) diagonally.MainstreamLaptops weighing in between 5 and 7 lb (2.3–3.2 kg), with a screen size of 14.1 inches and 15.4 inches (35 and 39 cm).Desktop replacement computersPowerful laptops meant to be mainly used in a fixed location and infrequently carried out due to their weight and size; the latter provides more space for powerful components and a big screen, usually measuring 17–20 inches (43–51 cm). Desktop replacements tend to have limited battery life, rarely exceeding three hours, because the hardware is not optimized for efficient power usage. Sometimes called a luggable laptop.
An example of a desktop replacement computers are gaming notebooks, which are designed to handle 3D graphic-intensive processing for gamers.can be understood as a particular point on the continuum of more or less portable computing devices: the point at which the device is large enough to use substantially the same software as a desktop machine, but small enough to support mobile computig. Other points on the continuum include:Transportable, also called portable computersComputers which can easily be moved from place to place, but cannot be used while in transit, usually because they require AC power. The most famous example is the Osborne 1. A transportable, like a laptop, can run desktop software; but it does not support mobile computing.TabletsComputers shaped like slates or (paper) notebooks, with touchscreen interfaces include a magnetized stylus and software for allowing input to be recognized by the touch screen. As of 2007, the most common subcategory is the Tablet PC, which is essentially a laptop with a touchscreen. Some tablets have no keyboard; others, called "convertibles", have a screen which can be rotated 180 degrees and folded on top of the keyboard. Tablets may have limited functionality in certain applications that require an actual physical keyboard for typing, but are otherwise capable of carrying out most tasks that an ordinary laptop would be able to perform.Internet tabletsInternet appliances in tablet form.
An internet tablet supports mobile computing. Internet tablets usually use Linux and they are able to run some applications, but they cant replace a computer. Internet tablets feature MP3, video, internet browser, chat, and picture viewer.Personal digital assistants (PDAs)Small computers, usually pocket-sized, usually with limited functionality. A PDA supports mobile computing, but almost never runs any desktop software.Handheld computersA high-end PDA or small tablet.Smart phoneA hand held or PDA with an integrated cellphone.Boundaries that separate these categories are blurry at times. For example, the OQO UPC is a PDA-sized tablet PC; the Apple eMate had the clamshell form factor of a laptop, but ran PDA software. The HP Omnibook line of laptops included some devices small enough to be called handheld computers. The hardware of the Nokia 770 internet tablet is essentially the same as that of a PDA such as the Zaurus6000; the only reason it's not called a PDA is that it doesn't have PIM software. On the other hand, both the 770 and the Zaurus can run some desktop Linux software, usually with modifications.An opened Osborne 1 computer, ready for use. The keyboard sits on the inside of the lid.HistoryBefore laptop/notebook computers were technically feasible, similar ideas had been proposed, most notably Alan Kay's Dynabook concept, developed at Xerox PARC in the early 1970s.The first commercially available portable computer was the Osborne 1 in 1981, which used the CP/M operating system. Although it was large and heavy compared to today's laptops, with a tiny CRT monitor, it had a near-revolutionary impact on business, as professionals were able to take their computer and data with them for the first time. This and other "luggables" were inspired by what was probably the first portable computer, the Xerox NoteTaker again developed at Xerox PARC, in 1976; however, only ten prototypes were built. The Osborne was about the size of a portable sewing machine, and importantly could be carried on a commercial aircraft. However, it was not possible to run the Osborne on batteries: it had to be plugged into mains.In 1982 Kaypro introduced the Kaypro II, a CP/M-based competitor to the Osborne 1. The Kaypro II featured a display nearly twice as big as the Osborne's and double-sided floppy drives with twice the storage capacity.A more enduring success was the Compaq Portable, the first product from Compaq, introduced in 1983, by which time the IBM Personal Compur had become the standard platform. Although scarcely more portable than the Osborne machines, and also requiring AC power to run, it ran MS-DOS and was the first true IBM clone(IBM's own later Portable Computer, which arrived in 1984, was notably less IBM PC-compatible than the CompaqAnother significant machine announced in 1981, although first sold widely in 1983, was the Epson HX-20. A simple handheld computer, it featured a full-transit 68-key keyboard, rechargeable nickel-cadmium batteries, a small (120 x 32-pixel) dot-matrix LCD display with 4 lines of text, 20 characters per line text mode, a 24 column dot matrix printer a Microsoft BASICinterpreter, and 16 KB of RAM (expandable to 32 KB).However, arguably the first true laptop was the GRiD Compass 1101, designed by Bill Moggridge in 1979-1980, and released in 1982. Enclosed in a magnesium case, it introduced the now familiar clamshell design, in which the flat display folded shut against the keyboard. The computer could be run from batteries, and was equipped with a 320×200-pixel plasma display and 384 kibibytebubble memory. It was not IBM-compatible, and its high price (US$8,000–10,000) limited it to specialized applications.
However, it was used heavily by the U.S. military, and by NASA on the Space Shuttle during the 1980s. The GRiD's manufacturer subsequently earned significant returns on its patent rights as its innovations became commonplace. GRiD Systems Corp. was later bought by the Tandy (now RadioShack) Corporation.The Ampere[1] a sleek clamshell design by Ryu Oosake also debuted in 1983. It offered aTwo other noteworthy early laptops were the Sharp PC-5000 and the Gavilan SC, announced in 1983 but first sold in 1984. The Gavilan was notably the first computer to be marketed as a "laptop". It was also equipped with a pioneering touchpad-like pointing device, installed on a panel above the keyboard. Like the GRiD Compass, the Gavilan and the Sharp were housed in clamshell cases, but they were partly IBM-compatible, although primarily running their own system software. Both had LCD displays, and could connect to optional external printers. The Dulmont Magnum, launched internationally in 1984, was an Australian portable similar in layout to the Gavilan, which used the Intel 80186 processorThe year 1983 also saw the launch of what was probably the biggest-selling early laptop, the KyoceraKyotronic 85. Owing much to the design of the previous Epson HX-20, and although at first a slow seller in Japan, it was quickly licensed by Tandy Corporation, Olivetti, and NEC who recognised its potential and marketed it respectively as the TRS-80 Model 100 line (or Tandy 100), Olivetti M-10, and NEC PC-8201[The machines ran on standard AA batteries. The Tandy's built-in programs, including a BASIC interpreter, a text editor, and a terminal program, were supplied by Microsoft, and are thought to have been written in part by Bill Gates himself. The computer was not a clamshell, but provided a tiltable 8×40-character LCD screen above a full-travel keyboard. With its internal modem, it was a highly portable communications terminal. Due to its portability, good battery life (and ease of replacement), reliability (it had no moving parts), and low price (as little as US$300), the model was highly regarded, becoming a favorite among journalists. It weighed less than 2 kg with dimensions of 30×21.5×4.5 centimeters (12×8½×1¾ in). Initial specifications included 8 kilobytes of RAM (expandable to 24 KB) and a 3 MHz processor. The machine was in fact about the size of a paper notebook, but the term had yet to come into use and it was generally described as a "portable" computer.Possibly the first commercial IBM-compatible laptop was the Kaypro 2000, introduced in 1985. With its brushed aluminum clamshell case, it was remarkably similar in design to modern laptops.
It featured a 25 line by 80 character LCD display, a detachable keyboard, and a pop-up 90 mm (3.5 inch) floppy drive.Also among the first commercial IBM-compatible laptops were the IBM PC Convertible, introduced in 1986, and two Toshibamodels, the T1000 and T1200, introduced in 1987. Although limited floppy-based DOS machines, with the operating system stored in read-on memory, the Toshiba models were small and light enough to be carried in a backpack, and could be run off lead-acid batteries.
These also introduced the now-standard "resume" feature to DOS-based machines: the computer could be paused between sessions, without having to be restarted each time.The first laptops successful on a large scale came in large part due to a Request For Proposal (RFP) by the U.S. Air Force in 1987. This contract would eventually lead to the purchase of over 200,000 laptops. Competition to supply this contract was fiercely contested and the major PC companies of the time; IBM, Toshiba, Compaq, NEC, and Zenith Data Systems (ZDS), rushed to develop laptops in an attempt to win this deal. ZDS, which had earlier won a landmark deal with the IRS for its Z-171, was awarded this contract for its SupersPort series. The SupersPort series was originally launched with an Intel 8086 processor, dual floppy disk drives, a backlit, blue and white STN LCD screen, and a NiCD battery pack. Later models featured an Intel 80286 processor and a 20 MB hard disk drive. On the strength of this deal, ZDS became the world's largest laptop supplier in 1987 and 1988. ZDS partnered with Tottori Sanyo in the design and manufacturing of these laptops. This relationship is notable because it was the first deal between a major brand and an Asian original equipment manufacturer.Another notable computer was the Cambridge Z88, designed by Clive Sinclair, introduced in 1988.
About the size of an A4 sheet of paper as well, it ran on standard batteries, and contained basic spreadsheet word processing, and communications programs. It anticipated the future miniaturization of the portable computer, and as a ROM-based machine with a small display, can—like the TRS-80 Model 100—also be seen as a forerunner of the personal digital assistant.By the end of the 1980s, laptop computers were becoming popular among business people. The NEC UltraLite, released in mid-1989, was perhaps the first notebook computer, weighing just over 2 kg; in lieu of a floppy or hard drive, it contained a 2 mebibyte RAM drive, but this reduced its utility as well as its size. The first notebook computers to include hard drives were those of the Compaq LTEseries, introduced toward the end of that year. Truly the size of a notebook, they also featured grayscale backlit displays with CGA resolution.
The Macintosh Portable, Apple's first attempt at a battery-powered computerThe first Apple Computer machine designed to be used on the go was the 1989 MacintPortable (although an LCD screen had been an option for the transportable Apple IIc in 1984). Unlike the Compaq LTE Laptop Released earlier in the year the Macintosh Portable was Actually a "luggable" not a laptop, but the Mac Portable was praised for its clear active matrixdisplayand long battery life, but was a poor seller due to its bulk. In the absence of a true Apple laptop, several compatible machines such as the Outbound Laptop were available for Mac users; however, for copyright reasons, the user had to supply a set of Mac ROMs, which usually meant having to buy a new or used Macintosh as well.The Apple PowerBook series, introduced in October 1991, pioneered changes that are now de facto standards on laptops, such as room for a palm rest, and the inclusion of a (a trackball). The following year, IBM released its ThinkPad 700C, featuring a similar design (though with a distinctive red TrackPoint pointing device).Later PowerBooks introduced the first 256-color displays (PowerBook 16c, 1993), and first true touchpad, first 16-bit sound recording, and first built-in Ethernet network adapter (PowerBook 500, 1994).In 1994, IBMreleased RS/6000 N40 PowerPC laptop running AIX (Operating system based on UNIX), manufactured by Tadpole.
Tadpole also manufactured laptops based on SPARC and DEC Alpha CPUs.The summer of 1995 was a significant turning point in the history of notebook computing. In August of that year Microsoft introduced Windows 95. It was the first time that Microsoft had placed much of the power management control in the operating system. Prior to this point each brand used custom BIOS, drivers and in some cases, ASICs, to optimize the battery life of its machines. This move by Microsoft was controversial in the eyes of notebook designers because it greatly reduced their ability to innovate; however, it did serve its role in simplifying and stabilizing certain aspects of notebook design. Windows 95 also ushered in the importance of the CD-ROM drive in mobile computing, and initiated the shift to the Intel Pentium processor as the base platform for notebooks.
The Gateway Solo was the first notebook introduced with a Pentium processor and a CD-ROM. Also featuring a removable hard disk drive and floppy drive, the Solo was the first three-spindle (optical, floppy, and hard disk drive) notebook computer, and was extremely successful within the consumer segment of the market. In roughly the same time period the Dell Latitude Toshiba Satellite, and IBM ThinkPad were reaching great success with Pentium-based two-spindle (hard disk and floppy disk drive) systems directed toward the corporate market.

Intel Core Processor:

2008-10-11T22:31:00.000+05:30

The Core brand refers to Intel's 32-bit mobile dual-core x86 CPUs that derived from the Pentium M branded processors. The processor family used a more advanced version of the Intel P6 microarchitecture. It emerged in parallel with the NetBurst (Intel P68) microarchitecture of the Pentium 4 brand, and was a precursor of the 64-bit Core microarchitecture of Core 2 branded CPUs. The Core brand comprised two branches: the Duo (dual-core) and Solo (Duo with one disabled core, which replaced the Pentium M brand of single-core mobile processor).

The Core brand was launched on January 5, 2006 by the release of the 32-bit Yonah CPU - Intel's first dual-core mobile (low-power) processor. Its dual-core layout closely resembled two interconnected Pentium M branded CPUs packaged as a single die (piece) silicon chip (IC). Hence, the 32-bit microarchitecture of Core branded CPUs - contrary to its name - had more in common with Pentium M branded CPUs than with the subsequent 64-bit Core microarchitecture of Core 2 branded CPUs. Despite a major rebranding effort by Intel starting January 2006, some computers with the Yonah core continued to be marked as Pentium M.

In 2007, Intel began branding the Yonah core CPUs intended for mainstream mobile computers as Pentium Dual-Core. These are not to be confused with the desktop 64-bit Core microarchitecture CPUs also branded as Pentium Dual-Core.

September 2006 and January 4, 2008 mark a discontinuation of many Core branded CPUs.[1][2]

Intel Pentium Dual-Core:

2008-10-11T22:27:00.002+05:30

The Pentium Dual-Core brand refers to mainstream x86-architecture microprocessors from Intel. They are based on either the 32-bit Yonah or (with quite different microarchitectures) 64-bit Merom or Allendale processors targeted at mobile or desktop computers respectively.

In 2006, Intel announced a plan to return the Pentium brand from retirement to the market, as a moniker of low-cost Core architecture processors based on single-core Conroe-L, but with 1 MB cache. The numbers for those planned Pentiums were similar to the numbers of the latter Pentium Dual-Core CPUs, but with the first digit "1", instead of "2", suggesting their single-core functionality. Apparently, a single-core Conroe-L with 1 MB cache was not strong enough to distinguish the planned Pentiums from other planned Celerons, so it was substituted by dual-core CPUs, bringing the "Dual-Core" add-on to the "Pentium" moniker.

The first processors using the brand appeared in notebook computers in early 2007. Those processors, named Pentium T2060, T2080, and T2130, had the 32-bit Pentium M-derived Yonah core, and closely resembled the Core Duo T2050 processor with the exception of having 1 MB L2 cache instead of 2 MB. All three of them had a 533 MHz FSB connecting CPU with memory. "Intel developed the Pentium Dual-Core at the request of laptop manufacturers".

Subsequently, on June 3, 2007, Intel released the desktop Pentium Dual-Core branded processors known as the Pentium E2140 and E2160. A E2180 model was released later in September 2007. These processors support the Intel64 extensions, being based on the newer, 64-bit Allendale core with Core microarchitecture. These closely resembled the Core 2 Duo E4300 processor with the exception of having 1 MB L2 cache instead of 2 MB Both of them had an 800 MHz FSB. They targeted the budget market above the Intel Celeron (Conroe-L single-core series) processors featuring only 512 kB of L2 cache. The 45nm E5200 model was released by Intel on August 31, 2008, with a larger 2MB L2 cache over the 65nm E21xx series and the 2.5GHz clock speed. The E5200 model is also a highly overclockable processor, as the Taiwanese computer enthusiast "Coolaler" was able to overclock an enginnering sample of the E5200 to a high 4.0GHz clock speed.

Such a step marked a change in the Pentium brand, relegating it to the budget segment rather than its former position as the mainstream/premium brand. An article on Tom's Hardware claims that these CPUs are highly overclockable.

Intel® Centrino® Processor Technology:

2008-10-03T19:32:00.006+05:30

Amazing performance. Breakthrough energy efficiency. The world is your playground. And with a laptop based on Intel® Centrino® processor technology, you can experience high-definition digital entertainment, blistering performance, enabled longer-lasting battery life, and amazing connectivity.

Features and benefits Performance hungry? With new hafnium-based circuitry and up to 6MB L2 cache, you can multitask compute-intensive applications up to 2x as fast, while the new Intel® HD Boost gives you up to 50 percent more speed for hi-def multimedia applications. Plus, you'll enjoy a 3x performance improvement for a super-enhanced hi-def video experience and smoother playback with VC-1 hardware acceleration and optional Intel® Graphics Technology. Demanding applications? With mobile-optimized 800 MHz Front Side Bus (FSB) providing increased bandwidth and up to 20 percent faster data transfer rates, you'll have the performance you need for everything from high-end gaming to hi-def multimedia applications and everything in between. Remain unwired longer. Intel® Intelligent Power Capability gives you breakthrough enabled battery life so you can stay unplugged longer. The low-leakage, hafnium-based 45nm processor delivers unrivaled energy efficiency while Deep Power Down Technology lets you save power by using it only when you need it. No matter where you're at, you'll have the battery power you need to enjoy DVDs, hours of music, the coolest games, and much more. Plus, with built-in wireless connectivity, you can connect to public Wi-Fi networks around the globe, no wires attached.Enjoy the hi-def mobile multimedia monster inside. With new 3D graphics features like Vertex Shader Model 3.0* and Hardware Transform and Lightening*, and the performance-packed next-gen Intel® dual-core technology, you'll experience hi-def multimedia like you're in it. Get the most out of your available bandwidth. Intel® Smart Memory Access improves system performance by optimizing available bandwidth in the system bus and memory subsystems to provide data to the processor when and where it is needed. Explore Microsoft Windows Vista*. Optional Intel® Turbo Memory was designed with Intel® Flash Memory technology and software drivers that enable new benefits when running Windows Vista, including 2x faster performance when loading memory-intensive applications, and faster system booting. Do more with all things digital. Get up to 2x the performance when converting video from a camcorder to a format for the Web, 1.25x more speed for editing digital photos, and download MP3s over 1.75x as fast.

Intel® Core™2 Quad Processors:

2008-10-03T19:31:00.004+05:30

New power, new speed. Quad-core from Intel.Leaders of the pack seeking monster performance, look no further. With four execution cores, the Intel® Core™2 Quad processor blows through processor-intensive tasks in demanding multitasking environments and makes the most of highly threaded applications. Whether you're creating multimedia, annihilating your gaming enemies, or running compute-intensive applications at one time, new quad-core processing will change the way you do everything. Pioneer the new world of quad-core and unleash the power of multithreading.Features and benefits The high end just got higher. Introducing the latest additions to the Core 2 Quad family built using Intel's 45nm technology and hafnium-infused circuitry. These new processors deliver amazing performance and power efficiency. Whether it's encoding, rendering, editing, or streaming, make the most of your professional-grade multimedia applications with a PC powered by the Intel® Core™2 Quad processor. With four processing cores and up to 12MB of shared L2 cache¹ and up to 1333 MHz Front Side Bus, more intensive entertainment and more multitasking can bring a multimedia powerhouse to your house.Intel® Wide Dynamic Execution, enabling delivery of more instructions per clock cycle to improve execution time and energy efficiencyIntel® Intelligent Power Capability, designed to deliver more energy-efficient performanceIntel® Smart Memory Access, improving system performance by optimizing the use of the available data bandwidthIntel® Advanced Smart Cache, providing a higher-performance, more efficient cache subsystem. Optimized for multi-core and dual-core processorsIntel® Advanced Digital Media Boost, accelerating a broad range of applications, including video, speech and image, photo processing, encryption, financial, engineering and scientific applications. Now improved even further on 45nm versions with Intel® HD Boost utilizing new SSE4 instructions for even better multimedia performanceMake highly threaded applications happy. Get in on the increasing number of highly threaded programs with quad-core technology from Intel. With four processing cores, an Intel Core 2 Quad processor-based PC will fuel more intensive entertainment and more media multitasking than ever.

Intel Vpro:

2008-09-25T07:46:00.002+05:30

Intel vPro technology is a set of features built into a PC’s motherboard and other hardware. Intel vPro is not the PC itself, nor is it a single set of management features (such as Intel Active Management Technology (Intel AMT)) for sys-admins. Intel vPro is a combination of processor technologies, hardware enhancements, management features, and security technologies that allow remote access to the PC -- including monitoring, maintenance, and management -- independently of the state of the operating system (OS) or power state of the PC. Intel vPro is intended to help businesses gain certain maintenance and servicing advantages, security improvements, and cost benefits in information technology (IT) areas.

Security and Intel vPro PCs:

vPro security technologies and methodologies are designed into the PC’s chipset and other system hardware. Because the vPro security technologies are designed into system hardware instead of software, they are less vulnerable to hackers, computer viruses, computer worms, and other threats that typically affect an OS or software applications installed at the OS level (such as virus scan, antispyware, inventory, and other security or management applications).

For example, during deployment of vPro PCs, security credentials, keys, and other critical information are stored in protected memory (not on the hard disk drive), and erased when no longer needed.

Intel Centrino:

2008-09-25T07:42:00.002+05:30

Centrino is a platform-marketing initiative from Intel. It is not a mobile CPU - rather, the term covers a particular combination of mainboard chipset, mobile CPU and wireless network interface in the design of a laptop personal computer. Intel claimed that systems equipped with these technologies should deliver better performance, longer battery life and broad wireless network interoperability.

Marketing:
Intel has reportedly invested US$300 million in Centrino advertising. Because of the ubiquity of the marketing campaign, many consumers mistakenly refer to Pentium M and Intel Core processors as "Centrinos". Many consumers have received the impression that only Centrino provides wireless connectivity in a laptop.

The Centrino marketing program has been widely assumed to be responsible for the success of Intel laptop PCs.

To qualify for a Centrino label, laptop vendors must use all three Intel qualified parts under each platform, otherwise using only the processor and chipset will carry the Pentium M, Pentium Dual-Core, Celeron, Intel Core or Intel Core 2 label instead.

Rise mP6:

2008-09-13T09:08:00.001+05:30

The MP6 was a microprocessor designed by Rise Technology to compete with the Intel Pentium line. The firm spent 5 years developing the processor. Announced in 1998, the chip never achieved widespread use, and Rise quietly exited the market in December of the following year. Like competitors Cyrix and IDT, Rise found it was unable to compete with Intel and AMD.
Silicon Integrated Systems licensed the MP6 technology, and used it in the SiS550, a system-on-a-chip that integrated the MP6 CPU, the north and south bridges, and sound and video on a single chip. The SiS550 saw use in some compact PCs and in consumer devices such as DVD players.

NexGen Nx586:

2008-09-13T09:05:00.002+05:30

NexGen (Milpitas, CA) was a private semiconductor company that designed x86 PC central processing units until it was purchased by AMD in 1996. NexGen chips were compatible with the x86 instruction set, but were not x86 clones of Intel's chips, operating internally with a version of RISC architecture dubbed "RISC86". Like competitor Cyrix, NexGen was a fabless design house that designed its chips but relied on other companies for production. NexGen's chips were produced by IBM's Microelectronics division.

The company was started in 1986, and founded by Thampy Thomas, Brad Smith, Mac McFarland, and Ashok Jain. Initially, it was funded by Olivetti, Compaq, ASCII and Kleiner Perkins. Its first design was targeted at the 80386 generation of processors. But the design was so large and complicated it could only be implemented using eight chips instead of three as the 386/385/387 designed used and was initially built using 0.8-um, Bi-CMOS. In 1986, CMOS as we know it today was not yet a widely used and standard chip process. As the team and funding grew the chip design moved to smaller and smaller geometries (from .8-um through .5,.35, .25-um) changed fab partners several times and architectures from complex instruction set (CISC) to reduced instruction sets (RISC) and tracked the Intel's X86 product line 80486 and Pentium generations. Intel had copyrighted their instruction set so NexGen devised a strategy to offer the processor only as a motherboard-based, multiprocessor system in order to compete. Later, when RISC became the dominate architecture, the company determined that it could compete directly in the microprocessor business.
Its second design, the Nx586 CPU, was introduced in 1994, was the first CPU to attempt to compete directly against Intel's Pentium, with its Nx586-P80 and Nx586-P90 CPUs. Unlike competing chips from AMD and Cyrix, the Nx586 was not pin-compatible with the Pentium or any other Intel chip and required its own custom NxVL-based motherboard and chipset. NexGen offered both a VLB and a PCI motherboard for the Nx586 chips.
Like the later Pentium-class CPUs from AMD and Cyrix, clock for clock it was more efficient than the Pentium, so the P80 ran at 75 MHz and the P90 ran at 84 MHz. Unfortunately for NexGen, it measured its performance relative to a Pentium using an early chipset; improvements included in Intel's first Triton chipset increased the Pentium's performance relative to the Nx586 and NexGen had difficulty keeping up. Unlike the Pentium, the Nx586 had no built-in math coprocessor; an optional Nx587 provided this functionality.
In later Nx586's, a x86 math coprocessor was included on-chip. Using IBM's multichip module (MCM) technology, NexGen combined the 586 and 587 die in a single package. The new device, which used the same pinout as its predecessor, was marketed as the Nx586-PF100 to distinguish it from the FPU-less Nx586-P100.
Compaq, which had backed the company financially, announced its intention to use the Nx586 and even struck the name "Pentium" from its product literature, demos, and boxes, substituting the "586" moniker, but never used NexGen's chip widely.
When AMD's K5 chip failed to meet performance and sales expectations, AMD purchased NexGen for $980M, largely to get the design team and the Nx586's follow-up design, which became the basis for the commercially successful AMD K6.

Winchip c6:

2008-09-13T09:04:00.001+05:30

The WinChip series was a low-power Socket 7-based x86 processor designed by Centaur Technology and marketed by its parent company IDT.

The design of the WinChip was quite different from other processors of the time. Instead of a large gate count and die area, IDT, using experience from the RISC processor market, created a small and electrically efficient processor. In fact, Winchip had much in common with the 80486, because of its single pipeline, in-order execution, and CISC architecture. It was of much simpler design than that of its competition, such as AMD K5/K6 and Intel Pentium II, which were based on superscalar RISC x86 decoder approaches with advanced instruction reordering (out of order execution) and multiple pipelines.
WinChip was, in general, designed to perform well with popular applications that didn't do much (if any) floating point calculations. This included operating systems of the time and the majority of software used in businesses. It was also designed to be a drop-in replacement for the more complex, and thus more expensive, processors it was competing with. This allowed IDT/Centaur to take advantage of an established system platform (Intel's Socket 7).
WinChip 2A added fractional multipliers and adopted a 100 MHz front side bus to improve memory access and L2 cache performance. It also adopted the performance rating concept, similar to how AMD and Cyrix marketed their processors. This method of specifying processor performance helped consumers understand where the WinChip's performance fit in against Intel's competing products. Another revision (2B) was also planned, with a die shrink to 0.25 μm, but was shipped in limited numbers. A third WinChip was planned as well, this one receiving a doubled L1 cache, but that CPU never made it to market.
The industry's move away from Socket 7 and the release of the Intel Celeron processor signalled the end of the WinChip. In 1999, the Centaur Technology division of IDT was sold to VIA. Although VIA initially branded processors as "Cyrix," the company initially used technology similar to WinChip with its Cyrix III line.

AMD Cyrix Cx5x86:

2008-09-03T12:06:00.000+05:30

Cyrix Cx5x86 was Released in August 1995, four months before the more famous Cyrix 6x86, the Cyrix 5x86 was one of the fastest CPUs ever produced for Socket 3 computer systems. With better performance in most applications than an Intel Pentium processor at 75 MHz, the Cyrix Cx5x86 filled a gap by providing a medium-performance processor option for aging 486 Socket 3 motherboards (which are incapable of handling Intel's Pentium CPUs, apart from the Pentium Overdrive).
The Cyrix 5x86 processor, codename "M1sc", was based on a scaled-down version of the "M1" core used in the Cyrix 6x86, which provided 80% of the performance for a 50% decrease in transistors over the 6x86 design. It had the 32-bit memory bus of an ordinary 486 processor, but internally had much more in common with fifth-generation processors such as the Cyrix 6x86, the AMD K5, and the Intel Pentium, and even the sixth-generation Intel Pentium Pro. The chip featured near-complete support for i486 instructions, but very limited support for Pentium instructions. Interestingly, some performance-enhancing features of the cpu were intentionally disabled due to potentially stability-threatening bugs which were not fixed before release time (these features can be enabled with freely-downloadable software utilities; see below).
The similarly-named SGS-Thomson ST5x86 and IBM IBM5x86C were licensed rebrandings of the Cyrix design (IBM and ST physically produced Cyrix's CPUs for them), marketed separately but identical for practical purposes, apart from the availability of a 75 MHz edition which Cyrix did not bring to market, and slight differences in voltage requirements. The Cyrix 5x86 design, however, should not be confused with the similarly-named AMD Am5x86 which was essentially a fast 486 (not an all-new design like the Cyrix part) but which had broadly similar performance, used the same Socket 3, and was introduced at the end of the same year.

AMD's K5:

2008-09-03T12:03:00.000+05:30

The K5 was AMD's first x86 processor developed entirely in-house, introduced in March 1996. Its primary competition was Intel's Pentium microprocessor range. Although it was originally scheduled for launch in 1995, due to design issues, it was delayed until 1996. AMD as a company was not as mature as Intel regarding microprocessor design, thus a lot of deadlines were missed and there was a lack of manufacturing expertise in scaling designs. The K5's was an ambitious design, closer to a Pentium Pro than a Pentium regarding technical solutions and internal architecture. However, the final product was regrettably closer to the Pentium regarding performance.

Technical details:

The K5 was based upon an internal highly parallel 29k RISC processor architecture with an x86 decoding front-end. The K5 offered good x86 compatibility. All models had 4.3 million transistors, with five integer units that could process instructions out of order and one floating point unit. The branch target buffer was four times the size of the Pentium's and register renaming improved parallel performance of the pipelines. The chips speculative execution of instructions reduced pipeline stall. It touted an instruction cache of 16 KiB, which was double that of the Pentium. Further, the primary cache was a "4-way" set associative, instead of the Pentium's "2-way" set. The K5 lacked MMX instructions, which Intel started offering in its Pentium MMX processors that were launched in early 1997. Compared to the Pentium the K5's floating point unit had around 10% less performance clock for clock.
Performance

The K5 project represented an early chance for AMD to take technical leadership from Intel. Although the chip addressed the right design concepts, the actual engineering implementation had its issues. The low clock rates were, in part, due to AMD's limitations as a "cutting edge" manufacturing company at the time, in part due to the design itself (many levels of logic, thus slowing it down). Having a branch prediction unit four times the size of the Pentium, yet reportedly not delivering superior performance is an example of how the actual implementation fell short of the projects goals. Additionally, while the K5's floating point performance was better than that of the Cyrix 6x86, it was weaker than that of the Pentium. Because it was late to market and did not meet performance expectations, the K5 never gained the acceptance among large computer manufacturers that the Am486 and AMD K6 enjoyed.

Intel Core 2 Duo:

2008-09-03T12:01:00.000+05:30

The Core 2 brand refers to a range of Intel's consumer 64-bit dual-core and 2x2 MCM quad-core CPUs with the x86-64 instruction set, based on the Intel Core microarchitecture, derived from the 32-bit dual-core Yonah laptop processor. (Note: The Yonah's silicon chip or die comprised two interconnected cores, each similar to those branded Pentium M). The 2x2 MCM dual-die quad-core CPU had two separate dual-core dies (CPUs)—next to each other—in one quad-core MCM package. The Core 2 relegated the Pentium brand to a lower-end market, and reunified laptop and desktop CPU lines, which previously had been divided into the Pentium 4, D, and M brands.
The Core microarchitecture returned to lower clock speeds and improved processors' usage of both available clock cycles and power compared with preceding NetBurst of the Pentium 4/D-branded CPUs. Core microarchitecture provides more efficient decoding stages, execution units, caches, and buses, reducing the power consumption of Core 2-branded CPUs, while increasing their processing capacity. Intel's CPUs have varied very wildly in power consumption according to clock speed, architecture and semiconductor process, shown in the CPU_power_dissipation tables.
The Core 2 brand was introduced on July 27, 2006 comprising the Solo (single-core), Duo (dual-core), Quad (quad-core), and Extreme (dual- or quad-core CPUs for enthusiasts) branches, during 2007. Intel Core 2 processors with vPro technology (designed for businesses) include the dual-core and quad-core branches.

Intel Pentium Dual Core:

2008-09-03T11:59:00.000+05:30

The Pentium Dual-Core brand refers to lower-end x86-architecture microprocessors from Intel. They are based on either the 32-bit Yonah or (with quite different microarchitectures) 64-bit Merom or Allendale processors targeted at mobile or desktop computers respectively.
In 2006, Intel announced a plan to return the Pentium brand from retirement to the market, as a moniker of low-cost Core architecture processors based on single-core Conroe-L, but with 1 MB cache. The numbers for those planned Pentiums were similar to the numbers of the latter Pentium Dual-Core CPUs, but with the first digit "1", instead of "2", suggesting their single-core functionality. Apparently, a single-core Conroe-L with 1 MB cache was not strong enough to distinguish the planned Pentiums from other planned Celerons, so it was substituted by dual-core CPUs, bringing the "Dual-Core" add-on to the "Pentium" moniker.
The first processors using the brand appeared in notebook computers in early 2007. Those processors, named Pentium T2060, T2080, and T2130, had the 32-bit Pentium M-derived Yonah core, and closely resembled the Core Duo T2050 processor with the exception of having 1 MB L2 cache instead of 2 MB. All three of them had a 533 MHz FSB connecting CPU with memory. "Intel developed the Pentium Dual-Core at the request of laptop manufacturers".
Subsequently, on June 3, 2007, Intel released the desktop Pentium Dual-Core branded processors known as the Pentium E2140 and E2160. A E2180 model was released later in September 2007. These processors support the Intel64 extensions, being based on the newer, 64-bit Allendale core with Core microarchitecture. These closely resembled the Core 2 Duo E4300 processor with the exception of having 1 MB L2 cache instead of 2 MB. Both of them had an 800 MHz FSB. They targeted the budget market above the Intel Celeron (Conroe-L single-core series) processors featuring only 512 kB of L2 cache.

Although using the Pentium name, the Pentium Dual Core is based on the Core technology, which can clearly be seen when comparing the specification to the Pentium D series. For example, the Pentium Dual Core has a maximum of 1MB of L2 Cache while the Pentium D processors can have up to 4MB of L2 Cache. But the major difference is the Pentium Dual Core processors only consume 65W peak while the Pentium D consumes a considerable 130W peak consumption which shows its relation to the Core power saving technology. Despite having a smaller L2 cache, the Pentium dual-core has proven to be much faster than the Pentium D under a variety of CPU intensive applications.

Pentium D Extreme Edition:

2008-09-03T11:57:00.000+05:30

The dual-core CPU runs very well with multi-threaded applications typical in transcoding of audio and video, compressing, photo and video editing and rendering, and ray-tracing. The single-threaded applications alone, including most games, do not benefit from the second core of dual-core CPU compared to equally clocked single-core CPU. Nevertheless, the dual-core CPU is useful to run both the client and server processes of a game without noticeable lag in either thread, as each instance could be running on a different core. Furthermore, multi-threaded games benefit from the dual-core CPUs.
As of 2008 many business and gaming applications are optimized for multiple cores. They ran equally well when alone on the Pentium D or older Pentium 4 branded CPUs at the same clock speed. However, the applications rarely run alone on computers under Microsoft Windows, Linux, BSD operating systems. In such multitasking environments, when antivirus software or another program is running in the background, or where several CPU-intensive applications are running simultaneously, each core of the Pentium D branded processor can handle different programs, improving the overall performance over its single-core Pentium 4 counterpart.

Pentium D:

2008-08-30T23:08:00.001+05:30

The Pentium D brand refers to two series of dual-core 64-bit x86 processors with the NetBurst microarchitecture manufactured by Intel. Each CPU comprised two single-core dies (CPUs) - next to each other - in one Multi-Chip Module package. The brand's first processor, codenamed Smithfield, was released by Intel on May 25, 2005. Nine months later, Intel introduced its successor, codenamed Presler, but without offering significant upgrades in design, still resulting in a relatively high power consumption. By 2005, the NetBurst processors reached the clock speed barrier at 4 GHz due to a thermal (and power) limit exemplified by the Presler's 130 W TDP (a high TDP requires additional cooling that can be noisy or expensive). The future belonged to more efficient and slower clocked dual-core CPUs on a single die instead of two. The dual die Presler's last shipment date on August 8, 2008 marked the end of the Pentium D brand and also the NetBurst microarchitecture.

Pentium 4:

2008-08-30T23:01:00.000+05:30

The Pentium 4 brand refers to Intel's line of single-core mainstream desktop and laptop central processing units (CPUs) introduced on November 20, 2000 (August 8, 2008 was the date of last shipments of Pentium 4s). They had the 7th-generation architecture, called NetBurst, which was the company's first all-new design since 1995, when the Intel P6 architecture of the Pentium Pro CPUs had been introduced. NetBurst differed from the preceding Intel P6 - of Pentium III, II, etc. - by featuring a very deep instruction pipeline to achieve very high clock speeds (up to 4 GHz) limited only by max. power consumption (TDP) reaching up to 115 W in 3.6–3.8 GHz Prescotts and Prescotts 2M (a high TDP requires an additional cooling that can be noisy or expensive). In 2004, the initial 32-bit x86 instruction set of the Pentium 4 microprocessors was extended by the 64-bit x86-64 set.
Pentium 4 CPUs introduced the SSE2 and SSE3 instruction sets to accelerate calculations, transactions, media processing, 3D graphics, and games. They also integrated Hyper-threading (HT), a feature to make one physical CPU work as two logical and virtual CPUs. The Intel's flagship Pentium 4 also came in a low-end version branded Celeron (often referred to as Celeron 4), and a high-end derivative, Xeon, intended for multiprocessor servers and workstations. In 2005, the Pentium 4 was complemented by the Pentium D and Pentium Extreme Edition dual-core CPUs.

Pentium M:

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The Pentium M brand refers to only two single-core 32-bit x86 microprocessors (with the Intel P6 microarchitecture) introduced in March 2003 (during the heyday of the Pentium 4 desktop CPUs), and forming a part of the Intel Centrino platform. The Pentium M branded processors had a maximum power consumption (TDP) of 3-25 W, and were intended for use in laptop personal computers (thus the "M" moniker standing for mobile). They evolved from the core of the last Pentium III branded CPU by adding the bus interface of Pentium 4 one, an improved instruction decoding/issuing front end, improved branch prediction, SSE2 support, and a much larger cache. The first Pentium M branded CPU, codenamed the Banias, was followed by the second one - the Dothan. After the Pentium M branded processors, Intel released the Core branded dual-core mobile Yonah CPU with a modified microarchitecture. Pentium M branded CPUs can be considered as the end of the Intel P6 microarchitecture.

Pentium 4 Extreme Edition(P4EE):

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Gallatin (Extreme Edition):

In September 2003, at the Intel Developer Forum, the Pentium 4 Extreme Edition (P4EE) was announced, just over a week before the launch of Athlon 64, and Athlon 64 FX (AMD64 FX). The design was mostly identical to Pentium 4 (to the extent that it would run in the same motherboards), but differed by an added 2 MiB of Level 3 cache. It shared the same Gallatin core as the Xeon MP, though in a Socket 478 form factor (as opposed to Socket 603 for the Xeon MP) and with an 800 MT/s bus, twice as fast as that of the Xeon MP. An LGA 775 version is also available.
While Intel maintained that the Extreme Edition was aimed at gamers, some viewed it as an attempt to steal the Athlon 64's launch thunder, nicknaming it the "Emergency Edition". With a price tag of ~$1000, it was also referred to as the "Expensive Edition" or "Extremely Expensive". Many condemned Intel for cannibalizing the Xeon line, but no such complaints were aimed at AMD's Athlon 64 FX-51, which was merely a repackaged Opteron 148.
The effect of the added cache was somewhat variable. In office applications, the Extreme Edition was generally a bit slower than the Northwood, owing to higher latency added by the L3 cache. Some games benefited from the added cache, particularly those based on the Quake III and Unreal engines. However, the area which improved the most was multimedia encoding, which was not only faster than the Pentium 4, but also on both Athlon 64s.
A slight performance increase was achieved in late 2004 by increasing the bus speed from 800 MT/s to 1066 MT/s. Only one Gallatin-based chip at 3.46 GHz was released before the Extreme Edition was migrated to the Prescott core. The new 3.73 GHz Extreme Edition had the same features as a 6x0-sequence Prescott 2M, but with a 1066 MT/s bus. In practice however, the 3.73 GHz Extreme Edition almost always proved to be slower than the 3.46 GHz version.
The 'Pentium 4 Extreme Edition' should not be confused with a similarly-named later model, the 'Pentium Extreme Edition', which is based on the dual-core Pentium D.

Mobile Pentium 4:

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The Mobile Intel Pentium 4 Processor was released to address the problem of putting a full Pentium 4 desktop chip into a laptop, which some manufacturers were doing. The Mobile P4 still used 70 W of power, which let it bridge the gap between the full Pentium 4 (using about 82 W), and the Mobile Pentium 4 M (using about 35 W).

Mobile Pentium 4 M:

Also based on the Northwood core, the Mobile Intel Pentium 4 Processor - M was released on April 23, 2002 and included Intel's SpeedStep and Deeper Sleep technologies, and Hyper-Threading in some models. Intel's naming conventions made it difficult at the time of the processor's release to identify the processor model.There was the Pentium III mobile chip (or the PIII-M), the Mobile Pentium 4 M (or the P4-M), the Mobile Pentium 4 (or the Mobile P4), and then just the Pentium M which itself was based on the Pentium III. Its TDP is about 35 Watts in most applications. This lowered power consumption was due to lowered core voltage, and other features mentioned previously.

Pentium III Xeon:

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In 1999, the Pentium II Xeon was replaced by the Pentium III Xeon. Reflecting the incremental changes from the Pentium II "Deschutes" core to the Pentium III "Katmai" core, the first Pentium III Xeon, named "Tanner", was just like its predecessor except for the addition of Streaming SIMD Extensions (SSE) and a few cache controller improvements. The second version, named "Cascades", was based on the Pentium III "Coppermine" core. The "Cascades" Xeon used a 133 MT/s bus and relatively small 256 KB on-die L2 cache resulting in almost the same capabilities as the Slot 1 Coppermine processors, which were capable of dual-processor operation but not quad-processor operation. To improve this situation, Intel released another version, officially also named "Cascades", but often referred to as "Cascades 2 MB". That came in two variants: with 1 MB or 2 MB of L2 cache. Its bus speed was fixed at 100 MT/s, though in practice the cache was able to offset this. Product codes for Tanner and Cascades mirrored that of Katmai and Coppermine; 80525 and 80526 respectively.

Pentium III:

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The Pentium III brand refers to Intel's 32-bit x86 desktop and mobile microprocessors (with the sixth-generation Intel P6 microarchitecture) introduced on February 26, 1999. The initial Katmai Pentium III contained 9.5 million transistors. The brand's initial processors were very similar to the earlier CPUs branded Pentium II. The most notable difference was the addition of the SSE instruction set (to accelerate media processing and 3D graphics), and the introduction of a controversial serial number embedded in the chip during the manufacturing process.

Similarly to the Pentium II it superseded, the Pentium III was also accompanied by the Celeron brand for lower-end CPU versions, and the Xeon for high-end (server and workstation) derivatives. The Pentium III was eventually superseded by the Pentium 4, but its Tualatin core also served as the basis for the Pentium M CPUs, which used many ideas from the Intel P6 microarchitecture. Subsequently, it was the P-M microarchitecture of Pentium M branded CPUs, and not the NetBurst found in Pentium 4 processors, that formed the basis for Intel's energy-efficient Intel Core microarchitecture of CPUs branded Core 2, Pentium Dual-Core, Celeron (Core), and Xeon.

The Pentium III was the first Intel processor to break 1 GFLOPS, with a theoretical performance of 2 GFLOPS.

Pentium Xeon:

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The Xeon brand refers to many families of Intel's x86 multiprocessing CPUs – for dual-processor (DP) and multi-processor (MP) configuration on a single motherboard targeted at non-consumer markets of server and workstation computers, and also at blade servers and embedded systems. The Xeon brand has been maintained over several generations of x86 and x86-64 processors. Older models added the Xeon moniker to the end of the name of their corresponding desktop processor, but more recent models used the name Xeon on its own. The Xeon CPUs generally have more cache than their desktop counterparts in addition to multiprocessing capabilities. Intel's (non-x86) IA-64 processors are called Itanium, not Xeon.

Pentium II Xeon:

The first Xeon branded processor was released in 1998, named the Pentium II Xeon (codenamed "Drake"), as the replacement of the Pentium Pro. It was based on the 0.25 µm "Deschutes" core (P6 microarchitecture) branded Pentium II (sharing its 80523 product code), used either a 440GX (a dual-processor workstation chipset) or 450NX (quad-processor, or oct with additional logic) chipset, and differed from the Pentium II desktop CPU (Deschutes) in that its off-die L2 cache ran at full speed. It also used a larger slot known as slot 2. Cache sizes were 512 KB, 1 MB, and 2 MB, and it used a 100 MT/s front side bus (FSB) .

Pentium Pro:

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The Pentium Pro is a sixth-generation (P6 core) x86 architecture microprocessor produced by Intel in November 1995, and it was originally intended to replace the original Pentium in a full range of applications. While the Pentium and Pentium MMX had 3.1 and 4.5 million transistors, respectively, the Pentium Pro contained 5.5 million transistors. Later, it was reduced to a more narrow role as a server and high-end desktop chip. The Pentium Pro was capable of both dual- and quad-processor configurations. It only came in one form factor, the relatively large rectangular Socket 8.

In 1997, the Pentium Pro was succeeded by the Pentium II processor, which was essentially a cost-reduced and re-branded Pentium Pro with the addition of MMX and enhanced 16-bit code performance. Costs were reduced by using standard SRAM cache chips running at half-speed, which increased production yields. The next year, in 1998, Intel split the market into three segments: budget workstations and home users, higher-end workstations and power users, and multi-processor capable servers. Those segments were served by the Celeron, the Pentium II, and the Pentium II Xeon, respectively.

The Pentium Pro (given the Intel product code 80521), was the first generation of the P6 architecture, which would carry Intel well into the next decade. The design would scale from its initial 150 MHz start, all the way up to 1.4 GHz with the "Tualatin" Pentium III. The Pentium Pro had a theoretical performance of 400 MFLOPS. The core's various traits would continue after that in the derivative core called "Banias" in Pentium M and Intel Core (Yonah), which itself would evolve into Core architecture (Core 2 processor) in 2006 and onward.

Pentium II

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The Pentium II brand refers to Intel's sixth-generation microarchitecture ("Intel P6") and x86-compatible microprocessors introduced on May 7, 1997. Containing 7.5 million transistors, the Pentium II featured an improved version of the first P6-generation core of the Pentium Pro CPUs, which contained 5.5 million transistors. In early 1999, the Pentium II was superseded by the Pentium III.

In 1998, Intel stratified the Pentium II family by releasing the Pentium II-based Celeron line of processors for low-end workstations and the Pentium II Xeon line for servers and high-end workstations. The Celeron was characterized by a reduced or omitted (in some cases present but disabled) on-die full-speed L2 cache and a 66 MT/s FSB. The Xeon was characterized by a range of full-speed L2 cache (from 512 KiB to 2048 KiB), a 100 MT/s FSB, a different physical interface (Slot 2), and support for symmetric multiprocessing.

Pentium:

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The Pentium brand refers to Intel's single-core x86 microprocessor based on the P5 fifth-generation microarchitecture. The name Pentium was derived from the Greek pente (πέντε), meaning 'five', and the Latin ending -ium.

Introduced on March 22, 1993, the Pentium succeeded the Intel486, in which the number "4" signified the fourth-generation microarchitecture. Intel selected the Pentium name after courts had disallowed trademarking of names containing numbers - like "286", "i386", "i486" - though, sometimes, the Pentium is unofficially referred to as i586. In 1996, the original Pentium was succeeded by the Pentium MMX branded CPUs still based on the P5 fifth-generation microarchitecture.

Starting in 1995, Intel (inconsistently) used the "Pentium" registered trademark in the names of families of post-fifth-generations of x86 processors branded as the Pentium Pro, Pentium II, Pentium III, Pentium 4 and Pentium D (see Pentium (brand)). Although they shared the x86 instruction set with the original Pentium (and its predecessors), their microarchitectures were radically different from the P5 microarchitecture of CPUs branded as Pentium or Pentium MMX. In 2006, the Pentium briefly disappeared from Intel's roadmaps to reemerge in 2007 and solidify in 2008.

Vinod Dham is often referred to as the father of the Intel Pentium processor.

Typical PC Hardware:

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A typical personal computer consists of a case or chassis in a tower shape (desktop) and the following parts:

Motherboard:

Motherboard - the "body" or mainframe of the computer, through which all other components interface.
Central processing unit (CPU) - Performs most of the calculations which enable a computer to function, sometimes referred to as the "brain" of the computer.

Computer fan - Used to lower the temperature of the computer; a fan is almost always attached to the CPU, and the computer case will generally have several fans to maintain a constant airflow. Liquid cooling can also be used to cool a computer, though it focuses more on individual parts rather than the overall temperature inside the chassis.

Random Access Memory (RAM) - Fast-access memory that is cleared when the computer is powered-down. RAM attaches directly to the motherboard, and is used to store programs that are currently running.
Firmware is loaded from the Read only memory ROM run from the Basic Input-Output System (BIOS) or in newer systems Extensible Firmware Interface (EFI) compliant
Internal Buses - Connections to various internal components.

PCI
PCI-E
USB
HyperTransport
CSI (expected in 2008)
AGP (being phased out)
VLB (outdated)

External Bus Controllers - used to connect to external peripherals, such as printers and input devices. These ports may also be based upon expansion cards, attached to the internal buses.

parallel port (outdated)
serial port (outdated)
USB
firewire
SCSI (On Servers and older machines)
PS/2 (For mice and keyboards, being phased out and replaced by USB.)
ISA (outdated)
EISA (outdated)
MCA (outdated)

Power Supply:

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A case control, and (usually) a cooling fan, and supplies power to run the rest of the computer, the most common types of power supplies are AT and BabyAT (old) but the standard for PC's actually are ATX and Micro ATX.

Storage controllers:
Controllers for hard disk, CD-ROM and other drives like internal Zip and Jaz conventionally for a PC are IDE/ATA; the controllers sit directly on the motherboard (on-board) or on expansion cards, such as a Disk array controller. IDE is usually integrated, unlike SCSI which is found in most servers. The floppy drive interface is a legacy MFM interface which is now slowly disappearing. All these interfaces are gradually being phased out to be replaced by SATA and SAS.

Video display controller:
Produces the output for the visual display unit. This will either be built into the motherboard or attached in its own separate slot (PCI, PCI-E, PCI-E 2.0, or AGP), in the form of a Graphics Card.

Removable Media Devices:

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CD (compact disc) - the most common type of removable media, inexpensive but has a short life-span.

CD-ROM Drive - a device used for reading data from a CD.
CD Writer - a device used for both reading and writing data to and from a CD.

DVD (digital versatile disc) - a popular type of removable media that is the same dimensions as a CD but stores up to 6 times as much information. It is the most common way of transferring digital video.

DVD-ROM Drive - a device used for reading data from a DVD.
DVD Writer - a device used for both reading and writing data to and from a DVD.
DVD-RAM Drive - a device used for rapid writing and reading of data from a special type of DVD.

Blu-ray - a high-density optical disc format for the storage of digital information, including high-definition video.

BD-ROM Drive - a device used for reading data from a Blu-ray disc.
BD Writer - a device used for both reading and writing data to and from a Blu-ray disc.

HD DVD - a high-density optical disc format and successor to the standard DVD. It was a discontinued competitor to the Blu-ray format.
Floppy disk - an outdated storage device consisting of a thin disk of a flexible magnetic storage medium.
Zip drive - an outdated medium-capacity removable disk storage system, first introduced by Iomega in 1994.
USB flash drive - a flash memory data storage device integrated with a USB interface, typically small, lightweight, removable, and rewritable.
Tape drive - a device that reads and writes data on a magnetic tape, usually used for long term storage.

Internal Storage Device:

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Hardware that keeps data inside the computer for later use and remains persistent even when the computer has no power.

Hard disk - for medium-term storage of data.
Solid-state drive - a device similar to hard disk, but containing no moving parts.
Disk array controller - a device to manage several hard disks, to achieve performance or reliability improvement.

Sound card

Enables the computer to output sound to audio devices, as well as accept input from a microphone. Most modern computers have sound cards built-in to the motherboard, though it is common for a user to install a separate sound card as an upgrade.

Networking

Connects the computer to the Internet and/or other computers.

Modem - for dial-up connections
Network card - for DSL/Cable internet, and/or connecting to other computers.
Direct Cable Connection - Use of a null modem, connecting two computers together using their serial ports or a Laplink Cable, connecting two computers together with their parallel ports.

Other Pheripherals:

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In addition, hardware devices can include external components of a computer system. The following are either standard or very common.

Includes various input and output devices, usually external to the computer system

Input:

Text input devices
Keyboard - a device, to input text and characters by depressing buttons (referred to as keys), similar to a typewriter. The most common English-language key layout is the QWERTY layout.
Pointing devices
Mouse - a pointing device that detects two dimensional motion relative to its supporting surface.
Trackball - a pointing device consisting of an exposed portruding ball housed in a socket that detects rotation about two axes.
Xbox 360 Controller - A controller used for Xbox 360, Which with the use of the application Switchblade(tm), can be used as an additional pointing device with the left or right thumbstick.
Gaming devices
Joystick - a general control device that consists of a handheld stick that pivots around one end, to detect angles in two or three dimensions.
Gamepad - a general game controller held in the hand that relies on the digits (especially thumbs) to provide input.
Game controller - a specific type of controller specialized for certain gaming purposes.
Image, Video input devices
Image scanner - a device that provides input by analyzing images, printed text, handwriting, or an object.
Webcam - a low resolution video camera used to provide visual input that can be easily transferred over the internet.
Audio input devices
Microphone - an acoustic sensor that provides input by converting sound into an electrical signals.

Output:

Image, Video output devices
Printer
Monitor
Audio output devices
[[Computer speakerSpeakers]
[[HeadphonesHeadset]

Binary Numeral System:

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The binary numeral system, or base-2 number system, is a numeral system that represents numeric values using two symbols, usually 0 and 1. More specifically, the usual base-2 system is a positional notation with a radix of 2. Owing to its straightforward implementation in digital electronic circuitry using logic gates, the binary system is used internally by all modern computers.

History:

The ancient Indian writer Pingala developed advanced mathematical concepts for describing prosody, and in doing so presented the first known description of a binary numeral system, possibly as early as the 8th century BC. Others place him much later; R. Hall, Mathematics of Poetry, has "c. 200 BC". The numeration system was based on the Eye of Horus Old Kingdom numeration system.
A full set of 8 trigrams and 64 hexagrams, analogous to the 3-bit and 6-bit binary numerals, were known to the ancient Chinese in the classic text I Ching. Similar sets of binary combinations have also been used in traditional African divination systems such as Ifá as well as in medieval Western geomancy.
An arrangement of the hexagrams of the I Ching, ordered according to the values of the corresponding binary numbers (from 0 to 63), and a method for generating the same, was developed by the Chinese scholar and philosopher Shao Yong in the 11th century. However, there is no evidence that Shao understood binary computation; the ordering is also the lexicographical order on sextuples of elements chosen from a two-element set.
In 1605 Francis Bacon discussed a system by which letters of the alphabet could be reduced to sequences of binary digits, which could then be encoded as scarcely visible variations in the font in any random text. Importantly for the general theory of binary encoding, he added that this method could be used with any objects at all: "provided those objects be capable of a twofold difference only; as by Bells, by Trumpets, by Lights and Torches, by the report of Muskets, and any instruments of like nature". (See Bacon's cipher.)
The modern binary number system was fully documented by Gottfried Leibniz in the 17th century in his article Explication de l'Arithmétique Binaire. Leibniz's system used 0 and 1, like the modern binary numeral system.
In 1854, British mathematician George Boole published a landmark paper detailing an algebraic system of logic that would become known as Boolean algebra. His logical calculus was to become instrumental in the design of digital electronic circuitry.
In 1937, Claude Shannon produced his master's thesis at MIT that implemented Boolean algebra and binary arithmetic using electronic relays and switches for the first time in history. Entitled A Symbolic Analysis of Relay and Switching Circuits, Shannon's thesis essentially founded practical digital circuit design.
In November of 1937, George Stibitz, then working at Bell Labs, completed a relay-based computer he dubbed the "Model K" (for "Kitchen", where he had assembled it), which calculated using binary addition. Bell Labs thus authorized a full research program in late 1938 with Stibitz at the helm. Their Complex Number Computer, completed January 8, 1940, was able to calculate complex numbers. In a demonstration to the American Mathematical Society conference at Dartmouth College on September 11, 1940, Stibitz was able to send the Complex Number Calculator remote commands over telephone lines by a teletype. It was the first computing machine ever used remotely over a phone line. Some participants of the conference who witnessed the demonstration were John Von Neumann, John Mauchly, and Norbert Wiener, who wrote about it in his memoirs.